在《名词解释》的这一部分，你可能会惊奇地发现有很多词语其实并没有在本书中出现过。我把这些专业名词添加进来，是考虑到一些读者在语言病理学方面的知识可能还比较匮乏。这些额外添加的专业名词，常常会出现在口吃问题的相关书籍当中；而对于这些专业名词的准确意思，很多读者可能并不大了解。通过阅读本文，这部分读者可以学习到更多的有关于口吃的知识。
为了方便各位读者进一步的查阅相关外文资料，并且最大限度的减少出错率。在名词解释这一部分，我采取了同时列出“原文解释”和“相应中文翻译”的方式，方便大家进行对照查阅。如果你在阅读的过程中，发现我的翻译有任何错误的地方，也欢迎你给我指正出来，谢谢了！
这份《名词解释》是按照相应英文术语的字母顺序排列和组织的。
在名词的具体解释当中，黑体加粗的词语表示该名词本身也是一个专业名词，在本文中你可以找到它的具体解释。
D字头部分：
- Delayed Auditory Feedback (DAF). When speaking under conditions of delayed auditory feedback, we hear what we have said a short time after we have said it. Most normally fluent speakers become highly disfluent when exposed to DAF and many stutterers experience decreased stuttering under DAF. DAF can also be used clinically both to help establish fluency as well as control/modify the stuttering.
延迟听觉反馈（DAF）【delayed auditory feedback (DAF)】：在延迟听觉反馈的条件下说话时，我们会在片刻后听见自己刚才所说的话。绝大多数说话流畅的正常人当暴露在DAF的环境中时，说话会变得非常结巴；而许多口吃者在DAF的环境中说话时，口吃却会减轻。在临床上，DAF被用于帮助患者建立语言流畅，同时也被用来控制或修正口吃。 - Demands and Capacities Model. This model states that stuttering is likely to occur when demands for fluent and continuous speech exceed the child’s capacities to perform at a level required by these demands. Factors that affect fluent speech include (1) motoric coordination, (2) linguistic ability, (3) social and emotional functioning, and (4) cognitive development. Clinically, attempts are made to reduce demands placed upon the child and increase the child’s capaci¬ties for dealing with them.
愿望＆能力模型（Demands and Capacities Model）：这个模型所描述的是：一个小孩，他内心中想要流畅连贯地说话，但假如这个小孩的实际能力达不到满足这个愿望所要求的水平，此时，口吃就非常容易发生了。影响流畅语言表达的因素包括（1）肌肉运动的协调性，（2）语言能力，（3）社交与情感机能，和（4）认知的发展水平。在临床治疗上，我们都努力地去减轻这个小孩内心中的过分愿望，并且增强他自身满足愿望的能力。 - Desensitization. Desensitization generally takes place at two levels: emotional and behavioral. Emotionally, desensitization therapy attempts to help the client feel increasingly relaxed and comfortable in situations that previously were associated with fear, anxiety and other forms of negative emotion. Behaviorally, desensitization attempts to help the client tolerate periods of physical tension during moments of stuttering accompanied by tension and struggle. To accom¬plish desensitization, stutterers are often exposed to a hierarchy of increasingly stressful situations where they work to remain calm and relaxed in activities such as voluntary stuttering, pseudo-stuttering or faking.
脱敏治疗（Desensitization）：脱敏治疗通常都是在两个层面上进行的：情感层面和行为层面。在情感层面，某些特定的环境会带来恐惧、焦虑和其他负面情感，脱敏治疗试图帮助患者逐渐适应这些环境，并尽量在其中感到放松和舒适；在行为层面，口吃的反复发作会带来生理上周而复始的紧张和挣扎反应，脱敏治疗试图帮助患者学会耐受这种生理性紧张周期。为了完成脱敏，口吃者常常被暴露在一系列压力不断增强的环境当中，在这些环境当中，他们得一边做出诸如故意口吃、假装口吃或模仿口吃等等行为，一边尽力保持自身的冷静和放松。 - Developmental disfluencies/Developmental hesitations. The develop¬mental repetitions, prolongations and stumblings in the speech of children learning to talk. In the natural development of speech, while learning to talk, most children’s speech is marked by effortless developmental hesitations to some extent. Included in this category are word and phrase repetitions and such acces¬sory vocalizations as the Interjection of “um” and “ah.” These “normal develop¬mental” hesitations are particularly common during times of linguistic stress, which is a part of language learning, and situational stress under conditions of situational and interpersonal difficulty.
发展性不流畅语言表达（发展性结巴）【developmental disfluencies（developmental hesitations）】：这指的是某些正处于学习说话阶段的儿童，他们语言表达中所表现出的发展性的语言重复，拖长和结巴的现象。在自身语言能力的自然发展过程中，绝大多数儿童在一定程度上都会被发现有轻柔的发展性结巴的现象。在这一范畴中包括了词语和短语的重复，以及像插入一些“嗯”、“啊”等感叹词的附加发音动作。这些“正常的发展性的”结巴现象在充满语言压力（属于语言学习过程的一部分）和环境压力（由环境困难和人际交往困难所造成）的时期中是非常常见的。 - Diagnosogenic theory. The theory that “stuttering” as a clinical problem and as a definite disorder, was found to occur not before being diagnosed but after being diagnosed. According to this theory, the problem of stuttering arises when a listener, usually a parent, evaluates or classifies or diagnoses the child’s developmental hesitations, repetitions, and prolongations as stuttering, and reacts to them as a consequence with concern and disapproval. As the child senses this concern and disapproval he reacts by speaking more hesitantly and with concern of his own, and finally, with the tensions and struggle involved in efforts to keep from hesitating or repeating.
诊断性致病理论（diagnosogenic theory）：这种理论认为“口吃”是一种“医院疾病”，是一种确诊性失调症。该理论认为口吃在确诊前是不存在的，是不会产生的；与一般人的想法相反，口吃问题恰恰是由于对“口吃的确诊”才产生的。根据这种理论，当一位听众，通常是父母，把他孩子的发展性结巴、重复和语音拖长等现象评价为，或归类为，或诊断为“口吃”，进而因此对这些现象表现出了关注和不认同时，口吃问题才会产生。当这个小孩子感知到这种关注和不认同后，他自己也会表现出对这一问题的关注。并最终为了努力地避免自己说话结巴或重复，他会变得紧张，他会用力地挣扎，从而说话会变得更加的结巴。 - Disflyency (Dysfluency). Used interchangeably by some clinicians and differ¬entially by others. Some feel that the prefix “dys-” should be used where there is reasonable suspicion of “organicity” to warrant the more medical terminology. The prefix “dis-” is used to denote mislearning and more psycho-emotional com¬ponents. Other clinicians opt for the term “nonfluency.” In any event, the terms refer to speech which is not smooth or fluent. All speakers talk disfluently at times; i.e., they hesitate or stumble in varying degrees. All stutterers are disfluent, but not all disfluency is stuttering. For instance, “disfluency” could describe the developmental hesitations of a child learning to talk, or the disrhythmic breaks in the speech of an adult. Other disfluencies are associated with neuropathology such as the speech characteristics associated with apraxia, parkinsonism, multiple sclerosis, myasthenia gravis and others.
非流畅语言表达（病态流畅语言表达）【disflyency (dysfluency)】：一部分临床医生把这两个词当作是同义词，交替使用；而另一部分医生却认为这两个词的含义是不同的。一部分人为了确保医学术语的严谨性，认为：前缀“病态（dys-）”应该被用在已经有充分的理由怀疑其生理机能上存在问题的情况下；而前缀“非（dis-）”应该被用于表示“丧失”的意思，具有更多的心理情感上的成分。其他的医生选择了“不流畅语言表达”这个词。
无论如何，这些词语指代的是一种不平滑的或不流畅的语言表达。所有人都有说话不流畅的时候；比如，他们也会有不同程度的说话结巴或踌躇的现象。所有口吃者说话都是不流畅的，但并不是所有的不流畅语言表达都是口吃。举例来讲，“非流畅语言表达”可以用来描述一个正处于语言学习时期的儿童的发展性结巴，或是在一个成年人的说话过程中所出现的节奏混乱和中断的现象。其他的非流畅语言表达都会涉及到神经病理学，比如由功能丧失症、帕金森病、多发性硬化症、重症肌无力和其他类似疾病所导致不流畅语言表达。 - Distraction. The diversion of attention: filling the mind with thoughts of other things so that the expectancy of stuttering is minimized. Keeping the anticipa¬tory emotions of stuttering from consciousness, thus temporarily affecting release from fear of stuttering and the act of stuttering.
注意力转移技巧（Distraction）：转移自己的注意力：把自己的脑袋尽量塞满其他东西，以便不留出空闲来放置自身对于口吃的预感。这指的是口吃者故意把“口吃预感”从自我感知中抽离出来，以便暂时地感到自己从口吃恐惧和口吃反应中得到了解脱。 - Dysphonia. Impairment of the voice, manifested by hoarseness, breathiness or other defects of phonation due to organic, functional or psychogenic causes.
发声困难（Dysphonia）：这指的是发声功能的损坏，是由于器质性的，功能性的或心理精神性的因素所造成的，表现为声音嘶哑，气息微弱或其他的发声缺陷。